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Physical Geology
Introduction: - The
science of Geology, scope, application, method of study, its various
branches.
Isostasy: - Gravity and
continental crust.
Igneous rock and igneous activity:
- magma, its crystallization, composition, texture, types of igneous
rocks, Forms and intrusive rock bodies, Lava its type and
properties, Volcano, Volcanic land forms.
Metamorphic rocks and the continental crust:
- Types and texture of metamorphic rocks, factors of metamorphism.
Earthquakes and the earth's interior:
- Earthquakes and faults, seismic waves, core mantle.
Sediments and sedimentary rocks:
- Rock cycle, rock weathering, sediments, lithification, sedimentary
rocks.
Weathering and mass wasting:
- Denotation, soil, initial and sequential landforms, land forms of
weathering, types of mass wasting.
Strata and their deformation:
- Stratigraphy, rock deformation, kinds of faults, joints, folds
Groundwater and its geological activities:
- surface and surface water, groundwater movement, porosity and
permeability, aquifers and aquicludes, wells, Karst topography.
The geological work of running water:
- rainfall, discharge, discharge system and channel network, stream
erosion, transportation and deposition landforms associated with
running water.
Glaciers and glaciations:
- formation of glacier, kinds of glacier and their description,
glacier erosion and transportation, landforms associated with them,
Pleistocene glaciation.
Geological work of wind:
- wind erosion, transport and deposition, landforms.
Geological work of sea and ocean:
- geological work of sea and ocean and associated landforms.
Introduction to plate tectonics:
- the continental margins, the ocean base floor, the mid-oceanic
ridge, the global plate system, sea floor spreading theories of
coral reef development.
Crystallography
Introduction to Crystallography:
- Development of crystallography, geometrical nature of order of
crystal, translation vectors, planar and space lattice.
Morphology of crystals:
- Point group symmetry, geometrical operation (rotation, reflection,
inversion and intonation symmetry notations, Concept of point group
and 32 classes, Definition of a crystal face, edge, and solid angle,
Law of constancy of interfacial angles: axial ratios, parameter
system of viciss, Miller indices, Law of rationality of indices,
Fourty eight forms, Typical crystals showing combination of forms.
Crystal growth and twining:
- Growth of crystal from solution and from a melt under controlled
conditions, crystal growth in open fractures, solution cavities or
vesicles. Twinning in crystals, Different types of crystal twins,
causes of twining in crystals, twin law.
Concept of space groups:
- Point group and space group, screw axes and glide planes,
international space notation.
Practical
Crystallography: -
demonstration of space lattice, models galena, fluorite,
sphalarite, pyrite, calcite, study of crystal system,
crystallography axes, interfacial angle and measurement with
Goniometer, study of fourty eight crystal forms and symmetry
elements of 32 classes. Construction of stereographic projection
of normal classes of seven crystal systems.
Mineralogy
Introduction to mineralogy:
- Definition of mineral, scope of determinative mineralogy, Examples
of rock forming (silicate) minerals and ore forming minerals.
Physical properties of minerals:
- Scalar properties: Colour, lustre and streak, their definition and
varieties with examples. Specific gravity: Definition with examples,
Determination of specific gravity of minerals, Sp.gra. of pure
mineral grains by the sink and float method, Fluorescence and
phosphorescence. Magnetic property: Ferromagnetic, paramagnetic and
diamagnetic mineral. Vector properties: Cleavage, parting and
fracture, their definitions, mineral examples. Hardness: definition,
mohos-scale of hardness, determination of hardness of minerals,
Crystallinity and forms of minerals, Crystalline-crystallized,
crystalline, cryptocrystalline and amorphous, Habits of mineral:
elongated, tabular, flattened and equant. Forms of crystalline and
cryptocrystalline aggregate-types examples and use in
identification.
Chemical Properties of minerals:
- Minerals as a chemical system, Classification of minerals,
Examples of Native elements, sulphides, halides, oxides, silicates,
titillates, phosphates, arsenates and vanadates, nitrates, borates,
and urinates, sulphates and chromates, tungstates and molybdates,
oxalates and hydrocarbons.
Introduction to optical mineralogy:
- Elements of optics, Optics of isotropic medium - refractive index.
Snell's law, critical angle, anisotropic media. Polarization and
interference of light. Polaroid. Polarizing microscope -
construction and use. Magnification and resolving power,
construction and use of quarter and full wave plates and quartz
wedge. Pleochroism and Birefringence. Optical indicatrix - Uniaxial
and biaxial indicatrix. Behaviour of light in uniaxial and biaxial
crystals. Optic sign. Optical properties of minerals: Form,
cleavage, fracture, and parting, Refractive index and relief. Becke
line and its use. Twining colour and pleochroism. Pleochroic formula
of common minerals, Properties under cross polarizers - interference
colours, twinning and extinction angle, Anomalous interference
colours. Michael Levy chart and its use in determining thickness,
path difference, birefringence of order of interference colour.
Optic sign of anisotropic media, interference figures. Dispersion of
optic axes in biaxial crystals.
Brief introduction of: -
the geology of the Nepal, Punjab, Kumaon, Sikkim - Bhutan Himalayas,
geology of the eastern, central, western and far western Nepal.
Mineral resources of Nepal.
Mineral Genesis and mineral classification:
- Formation of minerals in different endogenous and exogenous
processes. Physical and optical character and mode of occurrence and
important uses of the following minerals: Quartz, Feldspar,
Felspathoids, Mica, amphibole, pyroxene, olivine, garnet, chlorite,
epidote, scapolite, andalusite, silimanite, kyanite, zeolites,
zircons, talc, clay, minerals, calcite, apatite, rutile, spiral,
pyrite, cordierite.
Practical
Mineralogy: - Physical
properties of minerals: e.g. fibrous, columnar, tabular, lamellar,
glandular, micaceous, oblates, betroidal, Hardness if minerals -
determination hardness using minerals of known hardness, cleavage
and crystal structure. Sp. Gra. - Determination of Sp. Gra. of
lumps. Colour of the mineral - varieties of quartz, fluorite,
calcite. Lustre - examples of minerals showing vitreous, adamantine,
resinous, pearly, silky, metallic lustre.
Streak: Use of streak plate to obtain streak,
examples of minerals yielding different streaks, Fluorescence (f)
and phosphorescence (p): Use of short wave and long wave UV light to
study fluorescence and phosphorescence seen in sheltie, calcite,
fluorite, and Willamette. Magnetic property: minerals attracted by
hand magnet - magnetic pyrhotite, magnetite, limonite etc. Optical
mineralogy, petrological microscope: neat drawing and labelling the
parts. Magnification factor and its determination with the help of
stage and ocular micrometers.
Demonstration of optical properties:
- Optical accessories: Mica plate, gypsum plate and quartz wedge,
their effect on anisotropic minerals. Study of interferece fugures,
optic axes of uniaxial crystals. Determination of optic sign.
Dispeson of optic axes. Study of acute bisectrix, obtuse bisectrix,
option normal figures of biaxial crystals, determination of optic
angle. Determination of birefringence with help of Michael Levy
chart and quartz wedge. Demonstration of Berek compensator plates.
Study of optical properties of major silicates: Quartz, orthoclase,
microcline, labradorite, muscovite, biotite, hornblende, augite,
diopside, olivine, garnet, chlorite, epidote, andalusite, kyanite,
zircon, Calcite, Apatite.
Structural Geology
Structural Geology: -
Definition, scope of structural geology, and concept of detailed
structural analysis: descriptive, kinematics and dynamic analysis.
Descriptive Analysis: -
Geological maps and cross section of alien (trend and plunge) and a
plane (dip and strike).
Introduction to stereographic projection and its
application to structural geology. Plotting a plane and the
intersection by two planes. Stereographic projection as a
statistical tool.
Kinematics and dynamic analysis:
- Strain and stress in two dimensions. Mohr circle for strain and
stress.
Bedding, conformity and unconformity, types of
conformity, output characteristics, apparent and true dips,
Intrusive contacts: Sill and dykes, diapers and salt domes.
Primary structures, their application in structural
geology.
Fold and its definition:
- Classification of folds, cylindrical and non cylindrical folds.
drag folds. Criteria of recognition of folds in the field. Fault and
its Definition, classification of fault. Strike slip, Normal,
reverse, and thrust faults. Criteria of recognition of fault in the
field. Joints and their definition, principles of failure by
rupture. Classification of joints, study of joints in the field.
Secondary Structures: -
Cleavage, foliation, and schistosity, lineation. Their
classification and relation with other structure in the field.
Practical
Basic concept of field geology, study of methods of
representative physiographic features by hachuring stippling or
shading, form lines, layering, contouring etc. Interpolation of
topographical forms, contoured maps, dip and strike of horizontal,
inclined and vertical surfaces. True dip and strike from contoured
geological maps, plunge and pitch of linear structures.
Outcrop pattern of horizontal bed, vertical beds and
inclined beds. Inliers and outliers. True thickness and vertical
thickness. Width of outcrop, relation between true thickness and
with of outcrop.
Strike, true dip and apparent dip problems,
measurements of thickness and with of outcrop. Completion of
outcrops in geological. Three point problems, drawing of profiles
and studies of geological maps. Stereographic projection of true and
apparent dip, plunge, pitch of linear structures.
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